Reference Base: Access, Privacy, and Security Resources for Identity Management

Most Americans feel they lack control and understanding when it comes to how their personal data is collected and used by companies or the government. Public knowledge about data practices and privacy laws has diminished in recent years, and many people remain skeptical that their personal information is safe. In particular, Americans are increasingly concerned about the risks associated with government data collection. Most citizens believe potential harms are greater than potential benefits, and express worries about identity theft and fraud. These concerns are particularly pronounced in Hispanic, Black, and Asian communities.

Key Sources

• “How Americans View Data Privacy”, Pew Research Center, 2023: This report finds Americans increasingly concerned and confused about how companies and the government use their personal data. Despite this, large numbers practice unsafe data habits  and struggle with password management.
• “Americans and Privacy: Concerned, Confused, and Feeling Lack of Control Over Their Personal Information”, Pew Research Center, 2019: This report finds that Americans feel they are regularly being tracked by companies and the government, express deep concerns over their lack of control of their personal data, and believe the risks of data collection outweigh the benefits.  
• Public Perceptions on Data Sharing: Key Insights from the U.K. and the USA, The Lancet, 2020: This study surveyed thousands of U.K. and U.S. residents to understand concerns and comprehension around data sharing in a health care context. Both populations demonstrate increased concern in sharing health care data with private entities, though U.S. respondents showed greater concern overall. 
• “Understanding the Privacy and Security Experiences of Low-SES Populations”, Data and Society, 2017: This study examines perceptions of privacy and security among low-income individuals. Findings emphasize high rates of distrust and concern across Hispanic populations born outside the U.S., as well as the challenges perceived by those with the greatest privacy-related concerns in increasing their security. 

Key Data Points 

• Most Americans (79%) believe they have little to no control over how the government uses their data. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Additionally, 77% of Americans say they have very little or no understanding of what the government is doing with the data it collects about them. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• A large majority of Americans (72%) have little to no understanding about the laws and regulations in place to protect their data privacy, up from 63% in 2019. Those who are informed are consistently more likely to take actions to protect their data. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Most Americans (78%) trust themselves to make good decisions about their personal data, but a majority (61%) are skeptical that this will help protect their data. Only 21% are confident that those with access to their personal information will treat it responsibly. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• An increasing share of Americans are concerned about how the government uses the data it collects about them—up from 64% in 2019 to 71% in 2023. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• More than half of Americans (66%) say that the potential risks they face due to data collection by the government outweigh the benefits. (Pew Research Center, 2019)
• A significant portion of Americans (42%) are “very worried” about companies selling their information without their knowledge, and 38% are very worried about people stealing their identity or personal information. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
  • Some of these percentages are higher among Hispanic, Black, and Asian adults. Roughly half of Hispanic, Black, and Asian adults are very worried about people stealing their identity or personal information, and about one in five  are very worried about law enforcement monitoring their online activity. Only 10% of white adults report feeling this way. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• In the last 12 months, 26% of Americans say someone put fraudulent charges on their debit or credit card. Additionally, 11% have had their email or social media accounts taken over without permission, and 7% have had someone attempt to open a line of credit or apply for a loan in their name. In the past year, 34% have experienced at least one of these things. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Additionally, individuals with lower incomes are concerned about internet scams or fraud at twice the rate as those with higher incomes. (Data and Society, 2017)
• When asked if they would be willing to share their anonymized health information with the government, only 6.6% of Americans said they would (compared to 21.8% of U.K. residents). (The Lancet, 2020)

Many Americans struggle with managing their digital privacy and security. Most skip privacy policies, feel overwhelmed by password management, and make insecure password choices. A minority of people use password managers, and some smartphone users do not use basic security features at all, highlighting gaps between awareness and action when it comes to protecting personal data.

Key Sources

• “How Americans View Data Privacy”, Pew Research Center, 2023: This report finds Americans increasingly concerned and confused about how companies and the government use their personal data. Despite this, large numbers practice unsafe data habits  and struggle with password management.
• “Inside Out – A Study of Users’ Perceptions of Password Memorability and Recall”, Journal of Information Security and Applications, 2019: This study with 75 participants explores how users perceive password memorability, offering insight into trends in password creation that result in insecure passwords. 
• Correct Horse Battery Staple: Exploring the Usability of System-Assigned Passphrases, Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security, 2012: This study with 1,476 online participants assesses the usability of system-generated passwords and system-generated passphrases. Results indicate that passphrases and passwords are forgotten at similar rates, lead to similar levels of user difficulty and annoyance, and are written down by a majority of participants. 
• “How Memory Anxiety Can Influence Password Security Behavior”, Computers and Security, 2024: This report links users’ increased anxieties around passwords to more insecure password behaviors, such as password reuse and modification.   
• “A Behavioral Analysis of Passphrase Design and Effectiveness”, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 2009: The study looked at rates of login failure due to typographical errors and lack of recall across user-generated and system-generated passwords, and user-generated passphrases, finding that well-designed passphrases do not increase login failures and thus create positive user perceptions of passphrase use.

Key Data Points

• More than half of Americans (56%) frequently click “agree” on privacy policies without actually reading them.  (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• A majority (69%) of Americans are overwhelmed by the number of passwords they have to keep track of. Almost half (45%) report feeling anxious about whether their passwords are strong and secure. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Only half of adults say they choose passwords that are more secure, even if harder to remember. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Fewer than half (41%) of Americans say they always, almost always, or often write down their passwords. Thirty-four percent save their passwords in their browser at that same frequency, while only 21% regularly reset their online account passwords.  (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Only 32% of people report using a password manager, up from 20% in 2019. Roughly half of those ages 18 to 29 (49%) say they use these tools. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Among respondents, 16% of smartphone users say they do not lock their phones in a secure manner (e.g., by using a passcode, or relying on fingerprint or face recognition).  (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Users tend to reuse passwords to cope with the increasing number of passwords they are expected to remember (Journal of Information Security and Applications, 2019), with increased anxiety around the need to remember passwords leading to more insecure password practices (Computers and Security, 2024). 
• Most people have misconceptions about what makes for a strong password, often using common keyboard patterns, words, phrases, or personal information. Two-thirds of passwords are created around the user’s personal characteristics, primarily names and birthdays. (Journal of Information Security and Applications, 2019)
• System-generated passwords and passphrases are regularly deemed less memorable than user-generated ones. (Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security, 2012) 
• User-generated passphrases are more memorable than user- or system-generated passwords, despite being longer (Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 2009), though researchers have more recently proposed a passphrase generation method to create system-generated passphrases that are both memorable and secure.

Older Americans feel more vulnerable to surveillance, and less likely to feel that government data collection benefits them. This same population is also less likely than their younger counterparts to practice secure data protection habits.  When it comes to race, Black Americans are more concerned about government surveillance than white Americans, and experience security breaches more frequently than other groups. 

Key Sources

• “How Americans View Data Privacy”, Pew Research Center, 2023: This report finds Americans increasingly concerned and confused about how companies and the government use their personal data. Despite this, large numbers practice unsafe data habits  and struggle with password management.
• “Americans and Privacy: Concerned, Confused, and Feeling Lack of Control Over Their Personal Information”, Pew Research Center, 2019: This report finds that Americans feel they are regularly being tracked by companies and the government, express deep concern about their lack of control over personal data, and believe the risks of data collection outweigh the benefits.  
• “Understanding the Privacy and Security Experiences of Low-SES Populations”, Data and Society, 2017: This study examines perceptions of privacy and security among low-income individuals. Findings emphasize high rates of distrust and concern across foreign-born Hispanic populations, and the challenges perceived by those with the greatest privacy-related concerns in increasing their security. 

Key Data Points

• Americans 65 and over are less likely than younger adults to feel they have control over who can access things like their physical location, purchases, and private conversations. (Pew Research Center, 2019)
• Only 17% of those 65 and over believe they benefit from the government collecting data about them. (Pew Research Center, 2019)
• Americans 65 and over are more likely than adults under 30 to say they do not use a security feature to lock their mobile devices (28% versus 9%). (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• More than half (63%) of Americans 65 and over regularly write down their passwords (compared to 41% of all U.S. adults). Almost half (49%) of adults under 30 regularly save their passwords in their browser. (Pew Research Center, 2023)
• Black Americans are more likely than white Americans (60% versus 43%) to say they believe the government is tracking their mobile online activity. This trend is also reflected in views about offline activities: 47% of Black adults think their offline activities are tracked by the government, while just 19% of white adults feel this way. (Pew Research Center, 2019)
• Foreign-born Hispanic adults feel especially vulnerable both online and offline, with 63% reporting feeling very concerned about identity scams or fraud—17 percentage points higher than Black adults, the second-highest demographic group. They are also most likely to say they feel little or no control over the amount of data collected about them and how it is used. (Data and Society, 2017)
• Compared to other racial and ethnic groups, Black Americans report higher instances of security breaches. In total, 44% of Black adults have experienced at least one breach in the past year, a higher rate than white, Hispanic, or Asian populations. (Pew Research Center, 2023)

High-speed internet remains uneven across the U.S., with millions—especially in rural and tribal areas—still lacking reliable connectivity. Among those in rural areas who do subscribe, rates of home broadband use trail behind those in suburban and urban communities.

Key Sources

• “Inquiry Concerning the Deployment of Advanced Telecommunications Capability to All Americans in a Reasonable and Timely Fashion”, Federal Communications Commission, 2024: This report provides updates on federal efforts to expand and improve broadband deployment, interagency coordination, and digital inclusion programs, including the need for further expansion of high-speed broadband to rural and tribal areas. 
• “Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband”, Pew Research Center, 2024: This report finds that internet, smartphone, and home broadband adoption are now widespread among U.S. adults, but significant gaps persist by income, education, age, race, and community type.
• “Internet Access and Use Among Medicare Beneficiaries Living in the Community by Metropolitan Residence Status”, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS),  2024: This infographic highlights key statistics from the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey, showing differences in internet use across urban and rural beneficiaries. 

Key Data Points

• Only 32% of beneficiaries in urban areas used the internet to fill a prescription in the past year, compared to 22% in rural areas. (CMS, 2024)
• Approximately 24 million Americans lack access to high-speed internet, with the highest numbers in rural and tribal areas. (FCC, 2024)
• More than half (73%) of adults living in rural areas subscribe to high-speed internet at home, along with 77% of adults living in urban settings, and 86% of adults in suburban areas. (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• Less than half (42%) of Medicaid beneficiaries in rural areas use the internet every day, compared to 52% of beneficiaries in urban areas. (CMS, 2024)

Digital access and device ownership in the U.S. remain closely tied to income and education. While smartphones are widespread, lower-income and less-educated adults are less likely to have broadband at home and are more likely to rely solely on mobile devices for internet access. Cost remains a key barrier, with many citing the price of broadband and computers as reasons for not having home internet. For unhoused populations, there are high rates of phone and phone number turnover—a relevant insight for digital identity processes that assume stable access to devices.      

Key Sources

• “Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband”, Pew Research Center, 2024: This report finds that internet, smartphone, and home broadband adoption are now widespread among U.S. adults, but significant gaps persist by income, education, age, race, and community type.
• “Mobile Technology and Home Broadband 2021”, Pew Research Center, 2021: This report finds that the numbers of U.S. adults who own a smartphone and have home broadband have increased modestly since 2019, but significant gaps in access remained by income, education, age, and race. 
• “No Digital Divide? Technology Use Among Homeless Adults”, Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 2017: This study examines the extent to which homeless adults use digital technology and suggests that access to and use of technology among homeless adults is more prevalent than commonly assumed. 
• “Switched Off: Why Are One in Five U.S. Households Not Online?”, National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2022: This study finds the primary reason cited by offline households for not having home internet access is a perceived lack of need or interest, with concerns about cost and affordability also being significant factors.

Key Data Points

• Smartphones are widely used across all income levels, but those in households with annual incomes of at least $100,000 are more likely to own one compared to those earning under $30,000 (98% versus 79%). (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• Adults with more education are more likely to own smartphones and have high–speed internet access at home than those with less. (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• An overwhelming majority (95%) of adults with an annual household income of at least $100,000 say they have high–speed internet. Only 57% of adults in households that make less than $30,000 per year say the same. (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• Only 15% of adults are “smartphone-dependent,” meaning they own a smartphone but don’t have high–speed internet access at home. People in lower-income households are particularly likely to rely on their smartphone, including 28% of Americans in households earning less than $30,000 per year.  (Pew Research Center, 2024)
  • Adults with lower levels of formal education are also more likely to be smartphone-dependent. Almost a quarter (24%) of Americans with a high school diploma or less education rely on a smartphone for internet access, versus 6% of those with a college degree. (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• Most (92%) adults in households earning $75,000 or more per year say they have high–speed internet at home. More than half (57%) of those whose annual household income is below $30,000 say the same. (Pew Research Center, 2021)
• In a 2021 survey of 1,500 U.S. adults, the Pew Research Center found 45% said they do not have internet at home because the monthly cost was too expensive (Pew Research Center, 2021). A 2022 report by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration of approximately 50,000 households noted 18% did not have home internet due to cost (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2022). 
• Adults experiencing homelessness  have reported high turnover rates in phones—56% get a new phone after three months—and phone numbers, with 55% changing their phone numbers after three months. (Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 2017)

Racial and ethnic disparities persist in digital access, with white adults more likely than Black or Hispanic adults to own a computer, have high-speed internet access at home, and be less reliant on smartphones for internet access. Meanwhile, older adults are less likely than younger Americans to have reliable internet access at home or to own smartphones, with a sharp decline among those 75 or older.

Key Sources

• “Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband”, Pew Research Center, 2024: This report finds that internet, smartphone, and home broadband adoption are now widespread among U.S. adults, but significant gaps persist by income, education, age, race, and community type.
• “Mobile Technology and Home Broadband 2021”, Pew Research Center, 2021: This report finds that the numbers of U.S. adults who own a smartphone and have home broadband have increased modestly since 2019, but significant gaps in access remain by income, education, age, and race. 
• “Switched Off: Why Are One in Five U.S. Households Not Online?”, National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2022: This study finds the primary reason cited by offline households for not having home internet access is a perceived lack of need or interest, with concerns about cost and affordability also being significant factors.
• “Opportunities to Improve Online Access to SNAP for Older Adults”, AARP Foundation, 2024: This briefing highlights that many older adults face significant barriers to accessing SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) benefits, including complex application processes, limited digital literacy, and social isolation. These challenges contribute to low participation rates among eligible seniors.  

Key Data Points

• Eighty percent of white adults report owning a desktop or laptop computer, compared to 69% of Black adults and 67% of Hispanic adults. (Pew Research Center, 2021)
• Eighty percent of white adults also report having a high-speed connection at home, while only 71% of Black and 65% of Hispanic adults say the same. (Pew Research Center, 2021)

• Roughly 20% of Black and Hispanic adults are smartphone-dependent, compared to only 12% of white adults. (Pew Research Center, 2024)
• Households that cite affordability as the reason for being offline are more likely to have school-aged children at home and identify as racial or ethnic minorities than those who are offline but uninterested in getting access. (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2022)
• Adults 50 and older, and especially those 65 and older, are less likely to own a smartphone than younger adults. More than half (71%) of adults between 65 and 74 own a smartphone; this number falls to 43% among those 75 and older.  (Pew Research Center, 2021)

• Nearly half (46%) of low-income older adults interviewed for an AARP study reported that they rarely or never used the internet. Among those that did, the most common way to access the internet was by mobile phone. (AARP Foundation, 2024)

Americans with disabilities are less likely to own computers or smartphones and much more likely to be offline entirely. This digital divide is especially pronounced among Medicaid enrollees and those with functional impairments.

Key Sources

• “Aging Connected: Exposing the Hidden Connectivity Crisis for Older Adults”, Older Adults Technology Services (OATS) and the Humana Foundation, 2021: This report reveals a significant digital divide among older Americans and links the lack of home broadband to socioeconomic inequalities. 
• “Americans with Disabilities Less Likely than Those Without to Own Some Digital Devices”, Pew Research Center, 2021: This report finds that U.S. adults with disabilities are significantly less likely than those without disabilities to own computers and smartphones and more likely to never go online. Rates of home broadband and tablet ownership are similar between the two groups, highlighting both persistent digital divides and areas of parity.
• “Digital Divide: Marked Disparities in Computer and Broadband Internet Use and Associated Health Inequalities in the United States”, International Journal of Translational  Medical Research and Public Health, 2020: This study examines how rates of computer and internet use correlate with various socioeconomic, demographic, and health characteristics, presenting a clear association between lack of access and negative health outcomes. 

Key Data Points

• Sixty-two percent of adults with a disability say they own a desktop or laptop computer, compared to 81% of those without a disability (Pew Research Center, 2021)
• Seventy-two percent of people with a disability say they own a smartphone, compared to 88% without a disability. (Pew Research Center, 2021)
• Among people over 62, Medicaid enrollees are 2.7 times more likely to be offline than the general population. (OATS and Humana Foundation, 2021) 
• Among people over 62, those with functional impairments are twice as likely to be offline than the general population. (OATS and Humana Foundation, 2021) 
• People with lower access to computers and high-speed internet have a greater risk of disability and a lack of health insurance, and face a lower life expectancy. (International Journal of Translational  Medical Research and Public Health, 2020)

Older adults are less confident in their tech literacy and require more assistance, while those in poor health can be excluded altogether due to usability challenges. Older adults from historically marginalized groups face notable gaps in digital literacy. Among those over 50, white Americans are significantly more likely to have digital skills than Black and Hispanic Americans.

Key Sources

• “Americans with Disabilities Less Likely than Those Without to Own Some Digital Devices”, Pew Research Center, 2021: This report finds that U.S. adults with disabilities are significantly less likely than those without disabilities to own computers and smartphones, and more likely to never go online. Rates of home broadband and tablet ownership are similar between the two groups, highlighting both persistent digital divides and areas of parity.
• “Digital Divide as a Determinant of Health in the U.S. Older Adults: Prevalence, Trends, and Risk Factors”, BMC Geriatrics, 2024: This study analyzes responses from 5,671 older adults in the U.S. to examine their digital health disparities, finding that lower socioeconomic status, older age, and belonging to a marginalized race or ethnic group are associated with reduced access to and use of digital health technologies. 
• “Digital Skills and Older Workers”, Urban Institute, 2021: This report finds that many older workers lack essential digital skills needed by today’s labor market, with especially pronounced disparities among those with lower income, less education, and those in marginalized racial or ethnic groups. 

Key Data Points

• Sixty-eight percent of adults over 75 have little or no confidence in their ability to use their devices, or need help using new devices. Fifty-four percent of Americans ages 65 to 74 say the same. (Pew Research Center, 2021)
• Older adults who are in poor health are more likely to be digitally excluded due to usability challenges. (BMC Geriatrics, 2024)
• Older Americans from historically marginalized groups have lower levels of digital skills than older white workers. Among those over 50, Black Americans have the lowest rate (3%) of reported digital literacy (e.g., high-level of digital skills) across ethnic groups. (This excludes the 58% of older Black adults with basic digital skills). (Urban Institute, 2021; BMC Geriatrics, 2024)
• Thirty-nine percent of Hispanic and older Black Americans report having no digital skills, compared to 22% of older white adults. (Urban Institute, 2021) 

• Between 57% to 64% of older adults report not using digital technologies for health communication. (BMC Geriatrics, 2024)

People with disabilities face distinct challenges in accessing digital services as a result of inaccessible government websites and applications, as well as unfair treatment when applying for public benefits. These challenges can force users that are disabled to rely on external support to complete applications and access accounts, putting sensitive data at greater risk for exposure.  

• “A 50-State Review of Access to State Medicaid Program Information for People with Limited English Proficiency and/or Disabilities Ahead of the PHE Unwinding,” KFF, 2022: This report reviews the accessibility of state Medicaid program information for people with limited English proficiency or disabilities, finding that while many states offer translated materials, language assistance, and other accessibility accommodations, significant gaps and quality issues persist.
• “Four in Ten Adults with Disabilities Experienced Unfair Treatment in Health Care Settings, at Work, or When Applying for Public Benefits in 2022″, Urban Institute, 2023: This survey finds that 40% of adults with disabilities report experiencing unfair treatment in the past year in health care settings, at work, or when applying for public benefits. Consequences include disruptions in care, difficulty receiving benefits, and increased job turnover, with Black and Hispanic/Latinx disabled adults facing even higher rates of unfair treatment.
• “Protection of Privacy of Information Rights Among Young Adults with Developmental Disabilities”, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 2018: This scoping review finds that young adults with developmental disabilities  and their families face significant barriers  protecting their data privacy, including unclear policies, limited knowledge, a lack of organizational support, and insufficient accommodations.
• “Privacy Concerns and Behaviors of People with Visual Impairments”, CHI: Proceedings of the Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2015: This study presents findings from interviews with 14 visually impaired individuals, revealing that while their privacy and security concerns often overlap with those of sighted users, they also face unique challenges due to inaccessible systems and technologies.

Key Data Points

• Only 53% of benefits programs have mobile-friendly applications, which are crucial for smartphone-dependent users. (Code for America, 2024) 
• Rules from the Americans with Disabilities Act (2024) require accessible government websites, but implementation remains incomplete. Many benefits systems still lack multi-format support (e.g., screen reader-friendly forms). (Code for America, 2024)
• To access benefits and services, many young adults with developmental disabilities and their families share a wide range of personal data with a variety of community-based and private agencies, leaving them particularly vulnerable to exploitation related to identity and data privacy.  (International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 2018)  
• Disabled adults are more likely than adults without disabilities (14% versus 3%) to report unfair treatment in applying for public benefits. (Urban Institute, 2023)
  • About 71% of disabled adults who experienced unfair treatment in social service settings have difficulty attaining public benefits, leading to delayed benefits (45%) or not receiving benefits at all (57%). (Urban Institute, 2023)
• States are making partial but uneven progress in making Medicaid information available to people with disabilities, with many states offering some accommodations, but relatively few making materials broadly available in multiple alternative formats. (KFF, 2022)
• State Medicaid call centers in 49 states answer with an automated phone tree, which can present accessibility challenges for people with limited English proficiency and people with intellectual, developmental, or mental health disabilities. (KFF, 2022)
• Users with disabilities face heightened privacy concerns when online tools and processes are inaccessible. These include an increased reliance on others to fill out forms, applications, and login screens, requiring the user to disclose sensitive information to strangers or acquaintances. Assistive technologies like screen readers can also inadvertently expose sensitive data, such as passwords read aloud, or create vulnerabilities, such as inaccessible error messages during device setup. (CHI, 2015)

Individuals with LEP struggle to independently navigate digital systems without adequate translation and interpretation services, resulting in a lack of full comprehension of privacy policies and security guidelines.

Key Sources

• “Enrollment and Access Barriers for People with Limited English Proficiency”, Medicaid and CHIP Payment and Access Commission (MACPAC), 2024: This report details how people with LEP face significant barriers enrolling in and accessing Medicaid, leading to higher rates of disenrollment and coverage loss compared to English-proficient individuals. 
• “Benefits Enrollment Field Guide”, Code for America, 2024: This guide analyzes how states design and deliver online enrollment for public benefits, highlighting points of progress as well as persistent challenges in making applications more accessible, efficient, and user-friendly. Findings show that while some states have made improvements, many applications remain overly complex and burdensome.  
• “A 50-State Review of Access to State Medicaid Program Information for People with Limited English Proficiency and/or Disabilities Ahead of the PHE Unwinding”, KFF, 2022: This report reviews the accessibility of state Medicaid program information for people with limited English proficiency (LEP) and/or disabilities, finding that while many states offer translated materials, language assistance, and other accessibility accommodations, significant gaps and quality issues persist.
• “Addressing Virtual Care Disparities for Patients With Limited English Proficiency”, American Journal of Managed Care, 2022: This article highlights that patients with LEP face significant disparities in accessing virtual care, largely due to language barriers, low digital literacy, and challenges integrating interpreters into telehealth platforms.

Key Data Points

• In the United States, having LEP is associated with disparities in both health outcomes and access to care. People with LEP report poorer health and worse health outcomes, less access to medical or preventative care, and more difficulty understanding medical information and guidance. (MACPAC, 2024)
• It’s believed that half of U.S. benefits applications may use AI-generated translations without human validation, which can exclude non-English speakers and those with cognitive disabilities. (Code for America, 2024)
• In non-benefits contexts such as telehealth or digital hospital services, limited English proficiency has proven detrimental to users’ privacy and security, as users may not fully comprehend security warnings, privacy policies, or authentication instructions if not offered in their preferred language. This can lead to mistakes such as sharing credentials, falling for phishing attempts, or failing to use available security features effectively. (American Journal of Managed Care, 2022)
• While federal laws require state Medicaid agencies to provide information in a way that is accessible to people with LEP and people with disabilities, states vary in the availability of translated applications. For example, while Spanish is the most common language spoken by individuals with LEP in most states, approximately a quarter of states did not offer paper or online applications in Spanish as of August 2022 (KFF, 2022), and beneficiaries and advocates have reported struggling to access interpreters. (MACPAC, 2024). 

Millions of Medicaid and CHIP enrollees in the U.S. have limited English proficiency, with some states seeing LEP rates above 30%. These individuals often face significant obstacles navigating the system—struggling to read notices, complete forms, and access accurate information, especially when materials are not available in their preferred language. Translations are often inadequate or incomplete, which may be a contributing factor for the higher rates of disenrollment across LEP populations.

Key Sources 

• “Enrollment and Access Barriers for People with Limited English Proficiency”, MACPAC, 2024: This report details how people with LEP face significant barriers enrolling in and accessing Medicaid, leading to higher rates of disenrollment and coverage loss compared to English-proficient individuals. 
• “A 50-State Review of Access to State Medicaid Program Information for People with Limited English Proficiency and/or Disabilities Ahead of the PHE Unwinding”, KFF (2022): This report reviews the accessibility of state Medicaid program information for people with limited English proficiency (LEP) and/or disabilities, finding that while many states offer translated materials, language assistance, and other accessibility accommodations, significant gaps and quality issues persist.

Key Data Points

• In 2021, there were approximately 25.7 million people with LEP in the United States, including almost 4.9 million Medicaid and State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) enrollees—19% of total LEP individuals. In 2019, 23% of children enrolled in Medicaid had a parent that spoke English less than very well. (MACPAC, 2024)
• In 2021, 33.2% of Massachusetts’ Medicaid and CHIP beneficiaries had LEP; other states with high rates included West Virginia (33%), Vermont (32.2%), New York (31.5%), Rhode Island (26.6%), Kentucky (26.1%), Minnesota (25.5%), and California (25%). (MACPAC, 2024)  
• People with LEP face challenges understanding and completing Medicaid forms, especially if they are not translated into their preferred language. One study in Illinois found people with a primary language other than English were over five times more likely to be disenrolled than those proficient in English. Eighty-five percent needed help reading notices, and 94% needed help completing forms. (MACPAC, 2024)  
• Twenty-three of the 36 states with translated online Medicaid application landing pages only provide Spanish as an additional language (KFF, 2022)
• Translated information on Medicaid homepages may be less reliable than the information available on English versions of homepages. In some cases, translations are incomplete. (KFF, 2022)

FNS (Food and Nutrition Service) reports similar concerns around meeting the needs of LEP applicants and beneficiaries for SNAP.

Key Sources

• “SNAP Language Access Study”, USDA Food and Nutrition Service (2024); This study, conducted to determine the steps state agencies take to ensure LEP individuals have meaningful access to SNAP, finds that while nearly all state agencies translate key documents and provide some form of language assistance, The quality and consistency of staff training and language services vary, and challenges remain.  

Key Data Points 

• Among SNAP participants, Spanish is the most common language among low- income LEP individuals, followed by Chinese, Arabic, Vietnamese, Korean, and Russian.  
• States and local agencies struggle to serve LEP applicants and beneficiaries, reporting a lack of translated documents, issues with telephone interpreter services, and difficulty finding interpreters for less commonly spoken languages. 
• Nearly seven out of 10 (69.4%) SNAP state agencies report needing increased funding to ensure meaningful access for individuals with LEP. 
• Almost half (46.9%) report lacking multilingual staff on-site, 36.7% report not having enough translated materials, and 34.7% say there are not enough interpreters on-site at local offices. 
• The most common additional resources requested across states were documents translated into more languages. 

Barriers to identity verification—such as low tech literacy, a lack of documentation, or mismatches with credit or phone records—can prevent millions from accessing digital services. Studies show that people experiencing homelessness, low incomes, limited education, disabilities, or lacking current government-issued IDs face higher denial rates and more drop-offs in the verification process. These challenges are even greater for people affected by identity theft or those without access to technology. 

Key Sources 

• “Code for America and GetYourRefund.org Non-Filer Learnings and Recommendations”,  Code for America, 2021: This study found that many marginalized non-filers lack access to valid ID documents, especially physical Social Security cards, and face extra barriers due to identity verification processes that rely on credit history, phone checks, or digital uploads. These requirements disproportionately exclude those most in need. 

• “Identity in Practice Report: Understanding Identity Crimes in Black Communities”, Identity Theft Resource Center, 2023: This study with Black victims of identity crimes describes their significant financial losses and losses that are more intangible, including stress, damaged credit, and lost opportunities, as well as difficulty in getting support and resolution.  
• “Barriers to CalFresh for Applicants Experiencing Homelessness”, Code for America, 2019: This study demonstrates the particular difficulty that adults experiencing homelessness have in accessing documents required for applying for benefits, and the impact this has on enrollment and denial rates.  
• “Who Lacked Photo ID In 2020?: An Exploration of the American National Election Studies”, Center for Democracy and Civic Engagement, 2023: This report analyzes data from the 2020 American National Election Studies to show that millions of voting-age Americans—especially Black, Hispanic, young, low-income, less-educated, disabled, and non-homeowning citizens—lack a current driver’s license or any non-expired government-issued photo ID, with disparities particularly pronounced among young people of color.
• “Reduce Benefit Enrollment Burdens: Keys to Successful Remote Identity Proofing and an Omnichannel Constituent Experience”, TransUnion, 2023: This study finds that while most Americans prefer to enroll in government benefit programs online and value omnichannel support, significant administrative burdens, especially around identity verification, still hinder access. 

Key Data Points 

• In its work with the IRS Volunteer Income Tax Assistance program, Code for America found that 88% of clients left the application process when asked to complete identity verification steps using ID.me because of usability or identity verification issues. (Code for America, 2021)
  • Major obstacles included:
    • An inability to pass a telephone check with a prepaid phone, an address that did not match their telephone bill, or a reused phone
    • An inability to pass a credit check due to a lack of credit history
    • An inability to receive text messages
    • Low tech literacy, including difficulty uploading or taking photos of identity documents
  • After removing credit and telephone checks, 42% of clients still left the site without being able to verify their identity—typically because they lacked access to a physical Social Security card. 
• For people who’ve experienced identity theft, proofing offered unique challenges. In a 2023 study with Black Americans who had experienced identity theft, 53% of participants described struggling with accessing financial accounts, securing tax returns, and obtaining identity PINs, as well as reported “mental anguish.” (ITRC, 2023)

• Someone experiencing homelessness, on average, submits 40% fewer documents compared to other applicants. Applicants experiencing homelessness are about 31% more likely to be denied for missing documents than those with stable housing. (Code for America, 2019)

• Lack of access to updated state-issued identification can prevent people from using services like Login.gov, which requires a state-issued, non-expired photo ID. According to the Center for Democracy and Civic Engagement (2023):
  • In 2020, nearly 29 million voting-age U.S. citizens did not have a non-expired driver’s license and over 7 million did not have any other form of non-expired, government-issued photo identification.
  • People with less education and lower annual incomes are more likely to lack a current driver’s license.
  • Members of marginalized racial and ethnic groups were the least likely to have a driver’s license or government-issued photo ID. Specifically, 24% of Hispanic, 21% of Black, 12% of Native American, Native Alaskan, or other races, 9% of Asian, Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific Islanders, and 8% of voting-age white citizens did not have a driver’s license.
  • People with a disability are far more likely to lack a current driver’s license.
• For the purposes of identity verification, American adults are most comfortable  sharing a government-issued ID and least comfortable sharing financial documents, with 78% reporting being somewhat or very comfortable sharing a government-issued ID, and 27% reporting being very uncomfortable sharing financial documents. (TransUnion) 

KBV relies on matching personal information against data held by credit bureaus or data brokers. If you are credit invisible—meaning if you have little or no credit history—your information will not appear in these records. If you are unbanked—meaning you have no credit or savings account at a bank or credit union—it’s less likely that your address or other information will return in records checks. For those millions who are unbanked or credit invisible, there will be little data to serve as sources for KBV, so it may not be possible for the system to generate questions. Trends in unbanked and credit invisible status across the U.S. demonstrate the broad and unequal distribution of KBV’s negative impacts. 

Key Sources 

• “FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households”, FDIC, 2023: This study reports on the persistent disparities in access to banking and credit and the increased reliance on non-bank financial services among underbanked groups.
• “Data Point: Credit Invisibles”, Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, 2015: This report finds that about 11% of U.S. adults are credit invisible, and another 19 million have credit records that are unscorable due to insufficient or outdated information—issues disproportionately affecting Black, Hispanic, and low-income individuals. 
• “Financial Inclusion and Access to Credit”, Oliver Wyman, 2022: This report offers an accounting of credit invisibility in the U.S., and describes strategies for leveraging expanded data sources to make individuals credit visible. 

Key Data Points

• In 2023, 14.2 % of U.S. households (19 million) were considered underbanked, while 4.2% (5.6 million households) were unbanked. (FDIC, 2023)
• In 2022, 11% of American adults (28 million) were credit invisible. (Oliver Wyman, 2022)
• Young people ages 18 to 29, Black, Hispanic, and Native American individuals, low-income people, and people with disabilities are all more likely to be unbanked or lack credit. (FDIC, 2023; CFBP, 2015)

Biases and usability issues in biometric identity systems can create significant barriers to access. Facial recognition technologies have far higher error rates for people of color, women, older adults, and those whose gender expression has changed—with African American, Asian, and older adults experiencing more false matches than younger, white users. Document scanning accuracy can vary, and physical or visual impairments can make biometric systems less usable. Black users who have experienced identity theft have reported concerns about biometric proofing’s potential for bias and misuse.

Key Sources 

• “Remote Identity Validation Technology Demonstration”, Department of Homeland Security, 2024: This report catalogs results from a series of tests aimed at aiding the development of remote identity validation technologies  by evaluating their ability to authenticate identity documents, assess the “liveness” of selfies, and evaluate identity verification using smartphone images.
• “A large-scale study of performance and equity of commercial remote identity verification technologies across demographics,”  IEEE International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB), 2024: This study evaluates the performance of five commercially available remote identity validation (RIdV) technologies across equity across age, gender, race/ethnicity, and skin tone, finding that different solutions continue to show variations in performance across demographic groups. 
• “NIST Study Evaluates Effects of Race, Age, Sex on Face Recognition Software”, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2019: This study found that the accuracy of facial recognition algorithms vary significantly based on a person’s race, age, and gender, with higher error rates for people of color, women, and the elderly compared to white men.
• “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification”, Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 2018: This paper demonstrates that facial analysis algorithms have significant accuracy disparities across groups, with much higher error rates for darker-skinned females compared to lighter-skinned males.
• “Securitizing Gender: Identity, Biometrics, and Transgender Bodies at the Airport”, Social Research, 2011: This paper discusses the requirement for airline travelers to provide airlines with their name, date of birth, and gender exactly as they appear on government-issued identity documents, which can be a challenge for those whose appearance no longer matches their ID. This piece points to how changes in appearance that are not reflected on identification can affect the viability of biometrics. 
• “Identity in Practice Report: Understanding Identity Crimes in Black Communities”, Identity Theft Resource Center, 2023: This study conducted with Black victims of identity theft shows that they often experience significant financial losses and endure intangible harms, such as loss of peace of mind, damaged credit, and missed opportunities.
• “Usability of Biometric Authentication Methods for Citizens with Disabilities”, MITRE, 2019: This report evaluates the usability of biometric authentication for people with and without vision or hearing disabilities, finding that biometrics requiring dynamic device positioning pose significant usability barriers for users with limited or no vision.
• “Reduce Benefit Enrollment Burdens: Keys to Successful Remote Identity Proofing and an Omnichannel Constituent Experience”, TransUnion, 2023: This study finds that while most Americans prefer to enroll in government benefit programs online and value omnichannel support, significant administrative burdens, especially around identity verification, still hinder access. 

Key Data Points for Errors or Bias

• For remote verification of identity documents, validation errors vary depending on the state that issued the identification, and the type of phone used to scan the document. (DHS, 2024)
• Imposters with the same demographic background of true users are 10 times more successful in succeeding in fooling a biometric system. (DHS, 2024)    

• African American and Asian faces experience 10 to 100 times more false matches in facial recognition compared to white faces. (NIST, 2019)
• Among U.S.-developed algorithms, there are similar high rates of false positives for Asians, African Americans, and Native groups. (NIST, 2019)
• Both children and older adults have higher false positive rates. (NIST, 2019)
• Women consistently experience higher false positive rates than men, with dark-skinned women experiencing the highest error rates (up to 34.7%), and white men experiencing the least (as low as 0.8%). (NIST, 2019; Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 2018)
• Users whose gender expression has changed face challenges in biometric verifications, as their appearance may no longer match that on their government-issued ID. (Social Research, 2011)

Key Data Points for Perception

• Black identity theft victims express varied fears surrounding biometrics for identity proofing, including  fear of misuse, physical vulnerabilities,  lack of representation, and biases in biometric systems. Among facial, fingerprint, and voice biometrics, participants favor fingerprints as a biometric option. (ITRC, 2023)

• Among the general population, respondents are more comfortable sharing a photo of their face than their thumbprint (70% versus 63%). (TransUnion, 2023)

Key Data Points for Usability

• Biometric methods that require users to physically position and hold devices (like palm recognition) are less usable for people with limited or no vision. Biometric methods that minimize the need for precise device manipulation are more usable for people with disabilities. (MITRE, 2019)  

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